Authors

Abigail Adams (1744 - 1818) was the wife and closest advisor of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. She was the first second lady of the United States and second first lady of the United States. She is remembered for the many letters of advice she exchanged with her husband during the Continental Congresses. She was also famous for her early advocacy of women’s rights, female education, and the abolition of slavery.

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was the 16th President of the United States, known for leading the Union through the Civil War and for securing passage of the 13th Amendment, which outlawed slavery in the United States. Born in Kentucky, Lincoln spent his youth working his family’s land in Indiana and educating himself. He practiced law in Illinois for several years before successfully running for the state legislature and then the House of Representatives. After his term, he returned to Illinois and became involved with the anti-slavery Republican Party. In this period, he began to publicly articulate a moral and political case against slavery, especially in his campaign debates against Stephen Douglas in 1857. Lincoln went on to win the Presidency in 1860, and within weeks of his inauguration most Southern states seceded from the Union. The rest of his Presidency was spent leading the Union through the Civil War, in which Lincoln was known for his stirring oration and his capability for deft leadership in the face of the nation’s greatest crisis. In 1863, Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed all slaves in the Confederacy. He also secured passage of the 13th Amendment, formally outlawing all slavery in the United States. Just after the end of the war and his re-election to a second term, Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth.

Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), the first Secretary of the Treasury, was a founder who helped shape the Constitution and defended it in the Federalist Papers. Born on the Caribbean Island of Nevis, Hamilton came from humble means and was orphaned as a young boy. He raised funds to travel to New York for a college education, and during his studies Hamilton became involved in the revolutionary cause. When war broke out, he and his classmates at King’s College formed an artillery regiment to serve in the Continental Army. His courage and intelligence in the war vaulted him up the ranks until he became George Washington’s chief aide. In the post-war period, Hamilton was an advocate for the proposed Constitution, which he helped design. He successfully made the case for adopting the Constitution in the Federalist Papers. Hamilton then served in the Washington Administration as the first Treasury Secretary, where he sought economic unity between states by supporting domestic industry, assuming state debts, and establishing a national bank. After his tenure, Hamilton’s conflict with his longtime adversary, the politician Aaron Burr, intensified. Burr shot and killed Hamilton in a duel in 1804.

Alexander Stephens (1812-1883) was a United States Congressman who became the Vice President of the Confederacy. Born in Georgia, Stephens spent his youth studying to become a lawyer. He went on to serve in the Georgia legislature during the 1830s and the United States House of Representatives throughout the 1840s and ’50s. In his tenure as a Representative, he supported numerous measures to expand slavery into the newly acquired western territories. Upon the formation of the Confederacy, Stephens was elected its Vice President. Just after, Stephens delivered his “Cornerstone Speech,” in which he insists that racial inequality and slavery were the Confederacy’s foundational tenants. After the war, he was arrested for treason. In 1866, the Georgia legislature elected him to the U.S. Senate, which refused to accept him. Nonetheless, he was successfully voted into the House as a Representative for Georgia in 1873 and was elected Governor of Georgia in 1882.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) was a French statesman and author whose book, Democracy in America, is one of the most famous studies of American politics and society. Tocqueville was born into a French aristocratic family just after had faced the French Revolution. After his formal education, Tocqueville entered political life, gaining election to the lower house of the French parliament. Though being involved in government for much of his adult life, the dramatic shifts in French politics in the mid-19th century frustrated Tocqueville’s ambitious aims. In order to achieve the renown he sought, Tocqueville obtained funding for a trip to the United States to examine the prison system in the country, though Tocqueville had grander plans. He toured the country for nine months, from the east coast to the Mississippi River, and meeting with Americans from President Andrew Jackson to farmers on the western frontier. It was based on this trip which he wrote Democracy in America. The two-volume work examines every aspect of American democratic society, from constitutional structure to civic associations to popular culture. It is still one of the most widely read works on American political life and society to this day.

Algernon Sidney (1622-1683) was an English politician and political theorist. He was executed for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government of King Charles II. Discourses Concerning Government was used as a "key witness" in the case, arguing against the divine right of kings. His ideas had a strong influence on the American founding generation before, during, and after the Revolution. Sidney also helped his friend, William Penn, draft the colonial constitution of Pennsylvania.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher whose writings on science, ethics, and politics form a foundational part of the western intellectual tradition. Born in northeastern Greece, he moved to Athens as a teen to study under the philosopher Plato. Around the time of Plato’s death (~347 BC), Aristotle left Athens to research in Greece and Asia minor, eventually accepting King Phillip II’s invitation to tutor his son, the young Alexander the Great. Around 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded the Lyceum, a school of philosophy. While teaching there, Aristotle composed dozens of treatises, investigating subjects ranging from astronomy and metaphysics to poetry and logic. These writings have been the standard for philosophical inquiry for millennia. Among his treatises are several examinations of ethics and politics. His understanding of human virtue and his description of political life were an important part of the American founders’ literary canon.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was an author, inventor, and diplomat and one of the most prominent figures in early American history. Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence, and the first United States Postmaster General.

Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) was an abolitionist orator and author who exposed many Americans to the evils and injustices of slavery. Douglass was born into slavery on a plantation in Maryland near the Chesapeake Bay. His mother could read and write, which was rare amongst the enslaved, and Douglass quickly decided he would need an education to resist the brutalities of plantation life. He spent his youth learning as much as he could, and at about 20 he successfully escaped to New York. He then settled in Massachusetts, where he publicized the horrors of slavery in newspaper articles published in his paper The North Star, rousing and evocative speeches, and autobiographical writings. His memoir Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave became extremely popular in the North, and together these public works were crucial to stirring Northern public opinion against slavery. Throughout the Civil War years and into Reconstruction, Douglass continued to work for abolition, racial equality, and women’s suffrage.

George Mason (1725-1792) was a statesman and founder who played a central role at the Constitutional Convention. Mason was raised on a Virginia plantation neighboring George Washington’s, with whom he became close friends. The two were eventually elected to the House of Burgesses, Virginia’s Legislature, where Mason took the lead in organizing opposition to British taxations like the Stamp Act and Townsend Acts. When the revolution broke out in earnest, Mason became famous for drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Virginia Constitution. The Virginia Declaration of Rights formed part of Thomas Jefferson's inspiration for the Declaration of Independence, written shortly after. Mason was elected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. While he was a persuasive and effective delegate, he refused to sign the document, primarily because it lacked a bill of rights. However, his criticisms of the Constitution helped to ensure that the Bill of Rights was passed in the First Congress.

George Washington (1732-1799) was the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and the first President of the United States. Raised on a Virginia plantation, Washington worked as a land surveyor in his youth. He soon left that career to enlist in military service, and he distinguished himself in the French and Indian War. Washington’s fame as a military hero vaunted him into Virginia’s political elite, and his opposition to British taxations like the Townshend Acts endeared him to revolutionaries. He was elected to both Continental Congresses and, when the war broke out, was chosen to command the Continental Army. Washington led the Continental Army through the rest of the war, holding the army together despite seemingly insurmountable odds and numerous setbacks, financing much of the war effort from his own personal fortune. After leading the army to victory, Washington voluntarily relinquished his command and retired to his estate, Mount Vernon. He returned to political life to preside over the Constitutional Convention. As all the delegates had expected, Washington went on to win the first presidential election, and he served two terms as America’s first President from 1789-1797. His presidency defined many powers of the office, and his voluntary retirement after his second term established a tradition of peacefully transferring power.

James Buchanan (1791-1868) was America’s 15th President, whose attempts to settle the issue of slavery contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. Born and raised in Pennsylvania, Buchanan studied law as a young man. After practicing for several years, he successfully ran for the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, and thereafter to the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate. Buchanan became a staunch defender of states’ rights in this period. He was elected President in 1856, vowing to subdue conflict between the North and South. However, two of his most consequential decisions had the opposite effect: he encouraged two Supreme Court justices to expand the Dred Scott decision so that it overturned the Missouri Compromise; and sought to grant statehood to Kansas under the terms of the pro-slavery “Lecompton Constitution,” despite the citizens of Kansas having voted to be a free state. These acts aggravated sectional strife and split the Democratic party, paving the way for Lincoln’s election and Southern secession. Though he would spend his years in retirement defending his reputation, many at the time of the Civil War called it "Buchanan's War," and historians since have likewise looked unfavorably on Buchanan's Presidency.

James Kent (1763-1847) was a lawyer, legislator, and professor known for his Commentaries on American Law. Raised in New York, Kent studied law as a young man and opened a practice in Poughkeepsie. He was soon elected as a representative to the New York State Assembly. After his term, he moved to New York City to teach law. Though he later served again in the State Assembly, the peak of his legal career was his time serving on the New York Supreme Court and Court of Chancery. Upon retiring, Kent returned to teaching and wrote his Commentaries on American Law. This work helped to organize and clarify the principles of American common law, which until then had been largely scattered across several bodies of legal precedent. The work quickly became one of America’s most widely read legal commentaries.

James Madison (1751-1836) was a founder known for drafting the United States Constitution, defending it in the Federalist Papers, and serving as the fourth President of the United States. Madison was raised on a Virginia plantation, where he received a rigorous education. He continued his studies, especially in political philosophy, at Princeton under John Witherspoon. Upon graduating, Madison became involved in groups advocating independence from Great Britain. After the Revolutionary War and service in the Virginia state legislature, Madison became convinced that the Articles of Confederation were too weak and decentralized to address national challenges. He supported calls for the Constitutional Convention and was one of the most influential delegates. Madison had the central role in drafting the Constitution, which he then defended through his contribution of 29 essays to the Federalist Papers. Madison served as a congressman in the new government, helping to author the Bill of Rights. He served Secretary of State in the Jefferson Administration from 1800-1805. Madison was elected President in 1808 and re-elected in 1812. During his second term, Madison led the U.S. through the War of 1812. Madison retired to his home at Montpelier and remained an active voice in politics until his death in 1836.

James Otis (1725-1783) was a lawyer whose speeches and pamphlets inspired many colonists who opposed British rule over the American Colonies. Otis was born into a politically active family in Massachusetts. After graduating college, he was admitted to the bar and soon opened a law practice in Boston. Otis gained notoriety after delivering a five-hour speech in the Massachusetts Superior Court opposing the British Parliament’s Writs of Assistance, which allowed warrantless search and seizure of colonists’ property. He insisted that the law infringed on natural rights and had been passed illegitimately and should therefore be voided by the court. Thereafter, he became a pamphleteer. His pamphlet Rights of the British Colonies argued that laws, and especially taxes, are legitimate only when passed by elected representatives. This pamphlet also includes a defense of the equality and rights of Black Americans. Otis’ eloquence and activism earned him the admiration of many founders, especially John Adams.

James Wilson (1742-1798) was a framer who helped design the U.S. Constitution and explained its principles as an orator, a professor, and a Supreme Court Justice. Born in Scotland, Wilson studied Scottish philosophers like David Hume and Adam Smith while at universities around the country. After immigrating to America, he distinguished himself in the study and practice of law. In this period Wilson published a pamphlet titled, “Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament,” arguing that any parliamentary decision concerning the colonies passed without representation from the colonies was illegitimate. Pennsylvania sent Wilson as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, where he advocated and voted for the Declaration of Independence. Wilson was later sent to the Constitutional Convention, where he was one of the most prominent voices, frequently arguing for a popular vote to elect most offices. He was one of the chief architects of Article II of the United States Constitution, which establishes the Executive Branch. He continued to expound the principles of the Constitution as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court and then as the first professor of law at what is now the University of Pennsylvania.

Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1694-1748) was a Genevan professor whose writings on natural law influenced the American founders. After studying philosophy in Geneva and touring universities abroad, Burlamaqui began teaching at the Academy of Geneva, where his lectures attracted students from across the continent. He edited and expanded some of these lectures into the treatise Principles of Natural Law; upon his death, Burlamaqui’s colleagues used his remaining lecture notes as the basis for a second treatise, Principles of Political Law. The two-volume work was an international sensation, and after an English translation in 1752, they became standard textbooks for British and American students of law. His writings were among the most widely read by America’s founding generation, and Burlamaqui’s theories of natural rights, separated powers, and judicial oversight were touchstones for the founders’ understanding of politics.

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) was a United States Senator who became the President of the Confederacy in 1861. Born in Mississippi, Davis entered the United States Military Academy at West Point as a young man, and he served in the military for several years after. Upon returning to Mississippi, he ran a large cotton plantation. Davis then began a political career, securing election to the United States House of Representatives, fighting in the Mexican American War, and then serving as Senator and Secretary of War. Davis remained a committed defender of slavery and its expansion throughout this period. After secession, delegates from the Confederate States elected Davis as President. He served as President for the whole war, being captured by Federal troops in 1865, after which he was briefly imprisoned. He was released two years later and fled to Canada. He returned to the South after President Andrew Johnson pardoned former leaders of the Confederacy in 1868. Davis spent his late life attempting to defend his legacy against accusations of treachery, his writings forming the basis for much of the “Lost Cause” mythology about the antebellum South.

John Adams (1735-1826), the second President of the United States, was a founder whose writings shaped the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Born in Massachusetts, Adams entered college at 16 and quickly became a distinguished scholar. After becoming a lawyer, Adams helped organize opposition to the Stamp Act. Massachusetts elected him as a delegate to both Continental Congresses. Though he initially hoped reconciliation with Britain was possible, by end of the Congresses he agreed that separation was necessary. Adams helped Thomas Jefferson draft the Declaration of Independence and argued successfully for its passage. In 1776, Adams wrote Thoughts on Government, a pamphlet which influenced the framing of many state constitutions and, eventually, the United States Constitution. During and after the war, Adams served as a diplomat to France and The Netherlands. When he returned, he was elected Vice President, the first to hold the position. Adams went on to be elected President in 1798, though his tenure in office was largely unpopular and marred by a partisan split between him and his Vice-President, Thomas Jefferson. Adams retired to his farm in Massachusetts and later healed his relationship with Jefferson, dying on the same day as his friend on the fourth of July 1826.

John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) was a Congressman, Vice President, and Senator famous for his aggressive defense of states’ rights and slavery. Born and raised in South Carolina, the young Calhoun devoted much of his time to study and debate. After working as a lawyer, he was elected to the House of Representatives, where he consistently supported national unity and federal supremacy. He was then elected Vice President in the Adams Administration in 1824 and again under Andrew Jackson in 1828, in which period Calhoun came to reverse those views. Calhoun became one of the most extreme voices in favor of states’ rights by the time he joined the Senate in 1832. Most famously, he argued that South Carolina had the authority to nullify federal tariffs if it deemed them unconstitutional. Most constitutional interpreters, including James Madison who authored much of the Constitution, rejected the theory. Calhoun became a less prominent Senator later in his career, though he advocated for states’ rights and the expansion of slavery to the end of his life. His theories of states’ rights would remain influential doctrines in the South, ultimately finding their fulfillment in Southern secession in 1861.

John Dickinson (1732-1808) was a founder whose writings against British taxation were some of the most influential in the pre-revolutionary period. Born in Pennsylvania, Dickinson pursued a career in law. He soon began a legal practice in Philadelphia, but Dickinson did not come to prominence until 1767, when the British Chancellor Charles Townshend began passing the taxes and commercial regulations known as the “Townshend Acts.” In response, Dickinson wrote the Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, a series of 12 essays arguing that the British government had no such authority and that the present taxes were an omen of future oppression. The work became a touchstone for all subsequent arguments for colonial self-government in the lead up to 1776. Dickinson’s fame got him elected to both Continental Congresses, at which he opposed the Declaration of Independence. Despite his personal stance on Independence, he joined the Pennsylvania militia shortly after the Declaration was signed and took up arms against the British. After the war, Dickinson was appointed President of Delaware and then of Pennsylvania. Following these appointments, he was sent as a Pennsylvania delegate to the Constitutional Convention.

John Jay (1745-1829) was a founder who contributed to the Federalist Papers, served as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and shaped the foreign policy of the early Republic. Born in New York, Jay studied law and opened his own practice. He attended both Continental Congresses, where he at first sought reconciliation with Great Britain, but eventually endorsed revolution. Jay was one of the signatories to the Treaty of Paris in 1783 which ended the Revolutionary War and secured American Independence from Great Britain. Jay served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs under the government of the Articles of Confederation. Jay contributed to the Federalist Papers, supporting the ratification of the United States Constitution, though illness constrained him to writing just five essays. Jay next served as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; during his tenure the court addressed fundamental questions of constitutional interpretation. Jay later returned to diplomacy and negotiated the controversial “Jay Treaty,” meant to settle lingering issues in U.S.-British relations. The backlash to the treaty, led by those who found it excessively generous to Britain and not generous enough to revolutionary France, helped solidify the first partisan split in United States politics.

John Locke (1632-1704) was an English philosopher who is widely regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and commonly known as the founder of modern "liberalism".

John Trenchard (1662-1723) was an English essayist who, together with Thomas Gordon, advocated republican government and denounced the tyranny of absolute rule in the essays Cato’s Letters. Born to a wealthy family, Trenchard got his education at Trinity College in Dublin and was afterwards free to devote his time entirely to writing. Though he authored numerous works, he is most famous for the series of essays he wrote with his friend Thomas Gordon. Cato’s Letters exposed the corruption and impending absolutism Trenchard and Gordon observed in British politics. While the letters were popular in England, they became at least as popular with the American revolutionaries. Some scholars argue that Cato’s Letters were the most widely cited work on politics in America’s pre-revolutionary period.

John Winthrop (1588-1649) was a founder and governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Raised in England, Winthrop was a devout Puritan from a young age. He began working as a lawyer but soon decided that religious persecution had made life in England untenable. Winthrop joined the recently chartered Massachusetts Bay Company and accompanied its next voyage, in 1630, to the New World. Before or during the crossing Winthrop gave his most famous sermon, A Model of Christian Charity. Winthrop exhorted his fellow travelers to build a new community that could be a “city on a hill,” an example to other colonies and future generations. This and other imagery from his sermon have been echoed throughout the American political tradition. Upon reaching Massachusetts, Winthrop helped found settlements around present-day Boston. He spent the rest of his life serving in colonial government, including as governor for 12 years.

John Wise (1652-1725) was a minister who protested the British in the name of colonial representation and self-government. Wise, the son of a former indentured servant in Massachusetts, rose from his humble origins to become a renowned theologian. After completing his studies, he became the pastor of the Congregationalist parish in Ipswich, Massachusetts. In 1688, the royal governor of New England announced a British plan to withdraw the Massachusetts Bay Company charter, reclaim land promised to colonists, and impose new taxes. Wise and other local leaders in Ipswich organized resistance to these measures, for which the governor had them imprisoned. Nonetheless, the protestors eventually managed to prevent the act’s passage. Wise went on to write several treatises on the principles of colonial self-government his protest had defended. When they were reprinted in 1772, the works became immensely popular, influencing political thought during the founding period.

John Witherspoon (1723-1794) was a Scottish Presbyterian Minister who became President of Princeton and a signatory to the Declaration of Independence. After studying at the University of Edinburgh, Witherspoon became a pastor and was elected to the general assembly of the Church of Scotland. As a delegate, he worked to return control of church governance to Scottish parishioners. His writings on the matter interested several American Presbyterians on the board of Princeton (then called The College of New Jersey), who invited him to become president of the college. His lectures introduced many members of the founding generation, including James Madison, to the authors and theories that would shape their view on politics and morality. In 1776 he was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress, where he lobbied for and signed the Declaration of Independence. He was the only clergyman among the signatories.

Joseph L. Story (1779-1845) was a Supreme Court Justice who authored several significant opinions for the court as well as an influential commentary on the U.S. Constitution. Story was born in Massachusetts, where a few years earlier his father had taken part in the Boston Tea Party. After graduating college and studying law, Story worked as a lawyer and served several terms in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In 1811, James Madison nominated him to the Supreme Court. As a justice, he wrote many of the court’s foundational opinions, such as Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee, which established the supremacy of the United States Supreme Court over state courts when interpreting federal law. Story retired from the court in 1829, whereafter he became a law professor. In addition to his teaching, Story wrote a three-volume set of Commentaries on the Constitution. These commentaries, which argued for the unity of the nation and against state sovereignty, were extremely influential for future judges, lawyers, and scholars.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) was a philosopher and statesman in ancient Rome. Born to a wealthy family, Cicero devoted his youth to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. He entered public life as a lawyer and quickly gained a reputation as the greatest orator of his time. As his fame spread, Cicero rose the political ranks, eventually reaching Rome’s highest elected office of Consul. In this capacity, Cicero exposed and suppressed an attempted coup to overthrow the Senate. As demagogues and military dictators plagued the Roman Republic during its descent to tyranny and empire, Cicero consistently defended the ideals of republicanism, ultimately costing him his life. He left behind dozens of speeches, letters, and philosophical treatises. Cicero’s eloquent writings shaped European intellectual life for centuries. His works on natural law and his speeches in defense of republican government inspired many American founders, such as John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.

Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (1689-1755) was a French judge, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principal source of the theory of separation of powers, which heavily influenced the American Constitution.

Patrick Henry (1736-1799) was an American revolutionary and prominent Anti-Federalist writer. Born and raised in Virginia, Henry became a lawyer, a profession which suited his talent for passionate oratory. Henry’s strong anti-British rhetoric and penchant for fiery speeches gained him notoriety in Virginia, where he was elected to the colonial legislature. Soon after, he was elected to the first Continental Congress, at which he was adamant that armed confrontation with British rule was both justified and necessary. In one especially heated argument before the Virginia House of Burgesses, Henry famously declared, “Give me liberty or give me death!” As the revolution began, he had a hand in preparing the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Virginia Constitution. After serving in various offices under the Articles of Confederation, Henry joined the Anti-Federalist critics of the proposed Constitution, writing several pamphlets against its ratification due to his concerns of a domineering federal government and its lack of a Bill of Rights.

Publius was the pseudonym used by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay when they wrote the 85 essays now known as the Federalist Papers. In September 1787, after the United States Constitution had been submitted for ratification to the people of the states, writers across the country began publishing essays arguing against its adoption. Hamilton considered it necessary to counter their influence, and he resolved to better explain the Constitution’s principles to the people who would determine its fate. After writing the first essay, Hamilton recruited Jay and then Madison to contribute others. Though Jay soon became too sick to contribute more than 5, Hamilton went on to write 50 more essays, and Madison wrote 29. The pseudonym "Publius" was used by all three authors and was taken from the historical figure Publius Valerius Poplicoa, who helped co-found the Roman Republic. The essays immediately became famous, and they were crucial in securing popular support for the Constitution. They remain influential in American political thought and jurisprudence, and they continue to be read around the world.

Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) was a General for the Confederacy in the Civil War, during which he became famous as a military tactician. Born on a plantation in Virginia, Lee began a military career as a young man. After graduating from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, he worked as an Army engineer. Lee served in the army during the Mexican American War, in which he distinguished himself for his capabilities in intelligence and military tactics. When the Civil War broke out, Lee wavered in his allegiance but eventually chose to fight for the Confederacy. His role in the Confederate Army grew as the war progressed: by 1862, he led the Army of Northern Virginia, and by the end of hostilities he was General-in-Chief of all Confederate armies. Lee’s greatest victory came against a far larger Union force at Chancellorsville, Virginia in 1863, but his armies were worn down by the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg and Ulysses S. Grant’s Overland Campaign in 1864. Shortly after the Union’s capture of Richmond in 1865, Lee surrendered his army at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the Civil War.

Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) was the charismatic and spirited 26th President of the United States. Roosevelt grew up with asthma and determined to be active physically to overcome his condition. He went to Harvard University and became a published author on multiple subjects, including a history of the U.S. Navy during the War of 1812. He briefly attended law school but dropped out to pursue a career in Republican politics. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy under William McKinley, but made a name for himself leading volunteer cavalry unit known as the "Rough Riders" in the Spanish-American War, becoming famous for his exploits. He was elected Vice President in 1900 and became President after William McKinley's assassination in 1901. As President, he advocated progressive policies such as the Food and Drug Administration, conservation of land for national parks, and breaking up large trusts that controlled vast sectors of the US economy. He was the first President awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for mediating a treaty to end the Ruso-Japanese War. He ran for President again in 1912, but split the Republican vote between himself and his successor William Howard Taft and lost to Woodrow Wilson. Roosevelt continued to be an active voice in Republican politics and opposition to the Wilson administration until his unexpected death at age 60 in 1919.

Thomas Gordon (1691-1750) was a Scottish essayist who, together with John Trenchard, advocated republican government and denounced tyranny a series of essays entitled Cato’s Letters. Born in Kirkcudbright, Gordon soon moved to London to work as a lawyer and tutor. He met Trenchard there, and the two founded a journal, The Independent Whig, in which they began publishing Cato’s Letters. In these essays, the two authors insisted that the British political system had grown corrupt and vulnerable to would-be tyrants. They insisted it needed the checks on power and popular accountability of a republican government. While the letters were popular in England, they became at least as popular with the American revolutionaries. Some scholars argue that Cato’s Letters were the most widely cited work on politics in America’s pre-revolutionary period. Later in life, Gordon also produced influential translations and commentaries on the Roman authors Tacitus and Sallust—both of whom, like Gordon, devoted many writings to exposing tyranny.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the third President of the United States. He drafted the Declaration of Independence, formed the first political party in America, and authorized the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson was born on a Virginia plantation. While a law student he studied Enlightenment philosophy, which had a profound effect on his later political thought. He soon won election to Virginia’s legislature, and his involvement in revolutionary agitation against Britain persuaded Virginians to send him as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. There, he took the lead in drafting the Declaration of Independence. After the revolution, he held several state offices in Virginia before becoming minister to France. He was serving in that capacity during the Constitutional Convention and was therefore unable to attend, but he supported its ratification from France on the condition that a Bill of Rights would be added. Upon returning home, he joined the Washington Administration as Secretary of State. He became convinced that the policies of the Washington Administration, especially those proposed by Alexander Hamilton, had allowed too much political and economic power to centralize in the federal government. In response, he organized the Democratic-Republican party with James Madison, and proceeded won the Presidency in 1800. Despite having been an opponent of an energetic executive, while President he facilitated the purchase of the Louisiana territory, which doubled the size of the U.S. After his Presidency, he maintained a behind-the-scenes political role while he studied and wrote on a variety of subjects.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an Enligsh-American writer, philosopher, and vigorous defender of the American and French Revolutions. His most famous work, Common Sense (1776), made a clear case for American independence from British rule and directly attacked the political, economic, and ideological obstacles to achieving it.

William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891) was a Union general in the Civil War whose military campaigns were pivotal to the Union victory. Raised in Ohio, Sherman entered the United States Military Academy at age 16. He served in the Army from 1840-1853, and then worked as a bank manager, a lawyer, and a superintendent of a military academy. At the onset of the Civil War, Sherman re-enlisted as a colonel. He rose quickly through the ranks to become a general, winning important Union victories while serving under Ulysses S. Grant in the Western Theater. Sherman is best known for his “March to the Sea”—from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia—during which his troops destroyed military targets, infrastructure, and southern property, and liberated thousands of slaves. This campaign decisively weakened Confederate morale and ability to maintain the war effort. After the hostilities had ceased, Sherman served as Commanding General of the Army under President Grant and wrote popular memoirs about his service in the war.